Northern Ireland: Religion in War and Peace
Religious Groups Involved:
* Catholic Nationalists
* Protesent Unionists
Historical Background and Key Events of Conflict:
The conflict in Northern Ireland began in the late 17th century when English and British conquests of Ireland took the land from the Native Irish and Old English Catholics. These conquests replaced the Irish with English and Scottish settlers. The conquests rendered Irish Catholics non-citizens. While the conflict was not a religious war, religion served asa marker of national identity. Protestants wanted Northern Ireland to be part of the United Kingdom, while Catholic Irish Nationalists wanted Northern Ireland to unite with the Republic of Ireland.
Key Events:
* Easter Rising of 1916
* Bloody Sunday 1972
* Hunger Strikes 1981
* Good Friday Agreement 1998
Discussion Questions:
1. What are the historical origins of the conflict in Northern Ireland?
While the Troubles in Northern Ireland stretch from the 1960s through 1998, the origin of the conflict dates back to the 17th century when the English succeeded in the conquest of Ireland. Much of the island, especially in the North, was colonized by English and Scottish settlers. Irish Catholics in the North became non-citizens.
2. How did domestic forces drive the conflict and its negotiated resolutions?
The two domestic forces driving the conflict were Irish Catholics and Protestant Nationalists. While not entirely a religious conflict, leaders on both sides had to deal with political, economic, and paramilitary figures. Both religious groups opposed the use of violence, however, tension rose and much violence occurred throughout the conflict. Leaders on both sides of the political organizations were impacted by religious leaders as they sought a negotiated settlement.
3. How important were international religious and political forces?
Both secular and religious international leaders helped shape the course of conflict in Northern Ireland. British Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S President Bill Clinton were essential to the success of the peace process. Additionally, religious leaders such as, Pope John Paul ll, and Vatican officials lent their support to peace building.
4. What role did socioeconomic factors play?
Socioeconomic factors played crucial role in the conflict. Drawing inspiration from the American Civil Rights movement, citizens protested employment and housing practices in the late 1960s. Violence flared in working-class neighborhoods. Churches on both sides of the conflict became partners in government-sponsored economic development initiatives.
5. How did religion intersect with these other factors in driving outcomes?
Both the Protestant Nationalists and the Irish Catholics were influenced by many other factors to drive the outcome of a peaceful resolution. The conflict primarily was a Nationalist conflict, however, religion was the marker of identity and eventually helped lead to a peaceful resolution.
* Catholic Nationalists
* Protesent Unionists
Historical Background and Key Events of Conflict:
The conflict in Northern Ireland began in the late 17th century when English and British conquests of Ireland took the land from the Native Irish and Old English Catholics. These conquests replaced the Irish with English and Scottish settlers. The conquests rendered Irish Catholics non-citizens. While the conflict was not a religious war, religion served asa marker of national identity. Protestants wanted Northern Ireland to be part of the United Kingdom, while Catholic Irish Nationalists wanted Northern Ireland to unite with the Republic of Ireland.
Key Events:
* Easter Rising of 1916
* Bloody Sunday 1972
* Hunger Strikes 1981
* Good Friday Agreement 1998
Discussion Questions:
1. What are the historical origins of the conflict in Northern Ireland?
While the Troubles in Northern Ireland stretch from the 1960s through 1998, the origin of the conflict dates back to the 17th century when the English succeeded in the conquest of Ireland. Much of the island, especially in the North, was colonized by English and Scottish settlers. Irish Catholics in the North became non-citizens.
2. How did domestic forces drive the conflict and its negotiated resolutions?
The two domestic forces driving the conflict were Irish Catholics and Protestant Nationalists. While not entirely a religious conflict, leaders on both sides had to deal with political, economic, and paramilitary figures. Both religious groups opposed the use of violence, however, tension rose and much violence occurred throughout the conflict. Leaders on both sides of the political organizations were impacted by religious leaders as they sought a negotiated settlement.
3. How important were international religious and political forces?
Both secular and religious international leaders helped shape the course of conflict in Northern Ireland. British Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S President Bill Clinton were essential to the success of the peace process. Additionally, religious leaders such as, Pope John Paul ll, and Vatican officials lent their support to peace building.
4. What role did socioeconomic factors play?
Socioeconomic factors played crucial role in the conflict. Drawing inspiration from the American Civil Rights movement, citizens protested employment and housing practices in the late 1960s. Violence flared in working-class neighborhoods. Churches on both sides of the conflict became partners in government-sponsored economic development initiatives.
5. How did religion intersect with these other factors in driving outcomes?
Both the Protestant Nationalists and the Irish Catholics were influenced by many other factors to drive the outcome of a peaceful resolution. The conflict primarily was a Nationalist conflict, however, religion was the marker of identity and eventually helped lead to a peaceful resolution.
Sudan: Race and Religion in Civil War
Religious Groups Involved:
* Arab Muslims
* Christians
Historical Background and Key Events of Conflict:
Christianity spread to Sudan in the 6th century and replaced the traditions of worshiping a polytheistic canon of gods. The Nubian kings accepted Christianity and acknowledged the spiritual authority of the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. Some parts of the Sudan converted to Islam over a period of time and conflict arose as the differences in the religions established a clear divide between the north and south parts of Sudan.
Key Events:
* Equatoria Corps uprising in the South 1955
* Sudan gains Independence 1956
* First Civil War begins 1962
* Addis Ababa Agreement signed (first Sudanese Civil War ends) 1972
* Second Sudanese War breaks out due to President Numayri enacting sharia as state law 1983
* Omar al-Bashir takes control of the government 1989
* John Paul II travels to Sudan and urges an end to the violence of the Second Sudanese Civil War 1993
* Comprehensive Peace Agreement is signed by both parties (The Second Sudanese Civil War ends) 2005
* The International Criminal Court issues an arrest 2009
Discussion Questions:
1. What are the historical origins of Sudan’s religious divides?
Christianity spread to Sudan in the 6th century and was firmly established in local social and political institutions. Some conversion to Islam peacefully happened over a period of time, however, tensions rose when the United Kingdom and Egypt agreed to grant independence to Sudan. The Umma Party and the National Unionist Party in the north did not want Sudan to have autonomy and argued that is was an Islamic country. Over 17 years, one half million people were killed and thousands were displaced before the conflict officially ended due to the Addis Ababa Agreement of March 1972. Religious issues came to the forefront when President Nimeiry decreed Islamic sharia law to be the national law in Sudan. Tension continued even after a democratic government was elected in Sudan and another 2.2 million civilians were killed.
2. How were domestic religious forces and identities involved?
Northern Sudan is tied to Islam and 70 % of Sudanese are Muslim. Christians and indigenous beliefs comprise the other 30% and live primarily in the south. National sharia laws (islamic laws) directly contributed to the polarization of north-south relations in Sudan. Many southern Sudanese converted to Christianity to avoid being prosecuted by Islamic law. Southerners also joined the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) to fight against the hard lines established by Islamists and refused to recognized the government's authority and sharia laws.
3. How important are international religious and political forces?
Both secular and religious international leaders helped shape the course of conflict in Northern Ireland. British Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S President Bill Clinton were essential to the success of the peace process. Additionally, religious leaders such as, Pope John Paul ll, and Vatican officials lent their support to peace building.
4. What role have socioeconomic factors played?
Socioeconomic factors played crucial role in the conflict. Drawing inspiration from the American Civil Rights movement, citizens protested employment and housing practices in the late 1960s. Violence flared in working-class neighborhoods. Churches on both sides of the conflict became partners in government-sponsored economic development initiatives.
Kashmir: Religious Diversity becomes Religious Military
Religious Groups Involved:
* Hindus in India
* Muslims in Pakistan
Historical Background and Key Events of Conflict:
In 1947, British India was divided into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan, which caused conflict to the border region on Kashmir. Nationalism is involved in the conflict, as is religion. Both India and Pakistan desire their own religious beliefs to be upheld in Kashmir and a militant Kashmiri independence movement has begun.
Key Events:
* Partition and Indo-Pakistani War 1947
* Kashmir War 1965
* Indo-Pakistani War 1971
* Insurgency Erupts 1989
* Pandit Exodus 1989
* Indo-Pakistani War 1999
* Attacks on Hindu Pilgrims 2000-2002
* Confidence Building Measures 2000-
* Earthquake 2005
Discussion Questions:
1. What are the historical origins of the conflict over Kashmir?
India and Pakistan have often had a contentious relationship. When the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, a Hindu, decided to join his Muslim-majority province to India, rather than Muslim-majority Pakistan, tensions rose. From then on, Pakistan claim that Muslims in Kashmir are being held captive to by Hindu India. Various war have occurred over time and violence has increased due to religious revivalism and religious nationalism gaining greater social and political currency.
2. How are religious factors involved in the conflict?
The area of Kashmir encompasses five provinces between India and Pakistan. In these provinces, Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam are all practices. Different areas along the Line of Control have different majority religions therefore exacerbating tension in the area. This has resulted in internal fragmentation that complicates any negotiation efforts.
3. How important were international religious and political forces?
The conflict in the Kashmir region has the international community on alert. Kashmir is a pilgrimage site for Hindus and the security of pilgrims and religious sites is a concern. Although the area in distinct both geographically and politically, it is connected in the region. Neighboring countries and the world fear Islamic terrorism and the ultimate worst-case scenario of a nuclear war between India and Pakistan due to conflict over the region.
4. What role did socioeconomic factors play?
Socioeconomic factors also play a role in the conflict along the Line of control. There are significant population differences in the Kashmir region with the Indian side having a higher populations in most regions although different areas are more significantly Muslim and others Hindu. The economy and education are also lacking due to the devastating earthquake in 2005. Deadly riots have occurred as protest erupted when fear of radical Islamists have stepped into the area to provide training and education.
5. How did religion intersect with these other factors in driving outcomes?
Religion has become increasing important in the conflict in the Kashmir region. Both Pakistan and India have seen a rise in religious nationalism and the countries' domestic policies have driven many members to align themselves with one side or the other, eroding trust along religious lines.